kauri tree adaptations

Kauri seedlings can still occur in areas with low light but mortality rates increase for such seedlings, and those that survive self-thinning and grow to sapling stage tend to be found in higher light environments. As we approachedTe Matua Ngahere, their song of greeting and praise wove a spell that still makes me shiver when I think of it. On average Kauri trees are large, about 30-40 meters tall with a trunk diameter of several meters. What are the disadvantages of a clapper bridge. Kauri, native to New Zealand, are among the world's longest-living trees, and Tne Mahuta has been growing in Waipoua Forest for about 2,000 years longer than New Zealand has been inhabited by humans. She warned that while it should survive the change in weather in the immediate future, there could be a point where it could not cope and became extinct. It was on a spur of Mt Tutamoe about 30km south of Waipoua Forest near Kaihau. As the trees mature the trunk thickens and the lower branches are shed, resulting in the clean, straight trunk of the adult kauri. Black Locust. While not present in modern days, the Aupouri Peninsula in the far north was a refuge for kauri, as large quantities of kauri gum were present in the soils.[22]. Her websiteSpiritual Travelsfeatures holy sites around the world. The gum was obtained through digging, fossicking in treetops, or more drastically, by bleeding live trees. For this reason, kauri trees are rarely found at low elevations and are grow most successfully on ridge crests. Kauri dieback was observed in the Waitkere Ranges caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi in the 1950s,[39] again on Great Barrier Island in 1972 linked to a different pathogen, Phytophthora agathidicida[40] and subsequently spread to kauri forest on the mainland. Seed cones (ovule producing female characteristics) are small and circular with a strikingly bright green color. Such trees have been radiocarbon dated to 50,000 years ago or older. This is shown in the recent Holocene epoch by its migration southwards after the peak of the last ice age. Tane Mahuta is the biggest Kauri Tree in New Zealand! They are second in size only to the giant sequoias of California. Its growth is usually measured in width, rather than height. As with most perennials, these feeding roots also house a symbiotic fungi known as mycorrhiza which increase the plant's efficiency in taking up nutrients. We use cookies to optimize our website and our service. Fill in your details below or click an icon to log in: You are commenting using your WordPress.com account. This makes the Well, the Kauri of New Zealand also seem to posses some mystical aura. It was consumed by fire c.1890. that can grow 20 meters easily if you let them. The plan also involved considerable cost, requiring a long road to be driven up a steep high plateau into the heart of the protected area. The largest area of mature kauri forest is Waipoua Forest in Northland. They grow in whorls of 3 per stem. This leaching process is important for kauri's survival as it competes with other species for space.[19]. This is equivalent to 8.7 annual rings per centimetre of core, said to be half the commonly quoted figure for growth rate. Watch a video about Tane Mahuta and Te Matua Ngahere - two of the famous and ancient kauri in the Waipoua Forest. 4-Bedroom Two-Story Mediterranean Home for a Narrow Lot with Balcony (Floor Plan), 16 Different Types of Pie Pans and Plates. A fully developed tree will only have top branches with a completely bare trunk. This process is known as podsolization, and changes the soil colour to a dull grey. In these regions, kauri trees occupied a range spanning 7500 miles. One of these was Toronui, in Waipoua Forest. They rival the girth of even the California redwood tree, with trunk diameters sometimes reaching 9 meters around. Today, the kauri is being considered as a long-term carbon sink. Kauri trees grow naturally in the northern North Island and on the Coromandel Peninsula lowland. Because it is such a conspicuous species, forest containing kauri is generally known as kauri forest, although kauri need not be the most abundant tree. a very exciting one but one none the less, Kauri reproduces by The Kauri tree is a pretty smart tree. Those species which live alongside kauri include tawari, a montane broadleaf tree which is normally found in higher altitudes, where nutrient cycling is naturally slow. Many individuals probably exceed 1000 years, but there is no conclusive evidence that trees can exceed 2000 years in age. The bark of a kauri tree grows in smooth flaking sheets. That one is a baby, just eight hundred years old, they said of one. A mature kauri forest is capable of capturing 1000 tonnes of carbon per hectare of forest. Agathis australis / Kauri. Kauri snails are also highly mobile, and have been known to move 10 metres in 2 weeks. Agathis australis, commonly known as the kauri, is a coniferous tree of Araucariaceae in the genus Agathis, found north of 38S in the northern districts of New Zealand's North Island. The importance of Waipoua Forest in relation to the kauri was that it remained the only kauri forest retaining its former virgin condition, and that it was extensive enough to give reasonable promise of permanent survival. However, kauri trees can produce seeds while relatively young, taking only 50 years or so before giving rise to their own offspring. Although such trends cannot be observed in a human lifetime, research into current patterns of distribution, behavior of species in experimental conditions, and study of pollen sediments (see palynology) have helped shed light on the life history of kauri. This one is a thousand years, still pretty young, they said of another. In later years the gum of the trees was very valued as a varnish and linoleum. Some other common names for the kauri tree (mostly for non-New Zealand natives) are the kauri pine, the southern kauri, and the New Zealand kauri. In fact, because kauri live so long and their leaves are high in tannins, they modify the soil they live on, and create specialised habitats such as gumlands. It has many adaptation so you can take your pick from these: Its other name is iron bark as when you pull the bark back off the trunk, you find a pinky. Kauri is the Maori name for Agathis australis, trees that are native to New Zealand. The largest Kauri tree known on the planet was discovered by the historian Alastair Isdale, in 1890 who named it, The Great Ghost. Much like podocarps, it feeds in the organic litter near the surface of the soil through fine root hairs. During the peak of its movement southwards, it was traveling as fast as 200 metres per year. The kauri's ancestors lived during the Jurassic period between 190 to 135 million years ago. It is dioecious, with male and female cones on separate trees; the seeds take 15 months to mature after pollination. [14], Individuals in the same 10cm diameter class may vary in age by 300 years, and the largest individual on any particular site is often not the oldest. Some of them have been preserved for 60,000 years! The cone is fully open and dispersed within only two to three days of starting. canopy tree so all its branches will be getting alot of sunlight In the late 19th and early 20th centuries Kauri gum (semi-fossilised kauri resin) was a valuable commodity, particularly for varnish, spurring the development of a gum-digger industry. There are some places in nature that seem to have a special feeling about them. Himalayan balsam. The shallow root system is designed specifically for nutrient uptake. The technical storage or access is strictly necessary for the legitimate purpose of enabling the use of a specific service explicitly requested by the subscriber or user, or for the sole purpose of carrying out the transmission of a communication over an electronic communications network. leaves do the job just fine. Plants in these habitats have a remarkable lifecycle. The observed . Of course, without cutting down the tree its hard to know for certain how old a tree is, but scientists estimate that Tane Mahuta is 2,000 years old. [17] One 1700 year old swamp wood kauri that dates to approximately 42,000 years ago contains fine-scale carbon-14 fluctuations in its rings that may be reflective of the most recent magnetic field flip of the earth.[18]. Teaching resources for learning in nature, Waiau falls and kauri grove lookout track. This allows for similarly acidic compounds in the soil to be released. Where is the largest living kauri tree in New Zealand? (LogOut/ The quality of wood was used specifically for shipbuilding, construction, and ornamental furniture, and flooring. This means that these trees reproduce with cones, just like other conifers. One of the defining aspects of the kauri tree's unique ecological niche is its relationship with the soil below. Shes the author ofThe Soul of the Family Tree,Near the ExitandHoly Rover. The CO 2 release rates from the bark of the living stump and neighboring kauri trees were similar (1-1.5 mol . It eventually spreads into the branches and causes wounds that bleed resin. The peg root system grows directly down into the soil, and quite deep as well. Phytophthora agathidicida (PA) is a fungus-type pathogen which damages the trees root system. Led by Koro and Bill, we drove to the outskirts of the forest. On the other hand, broadleaf trees such as mhoe derive a good fraction of their nutrition in the deeper mineral layer of the soil. They make up for their dallying by growing for a long, long, long time. And then we came down into a slight ravine where we could see the glimmer of a white trunk ahead of us through the bush. The birds and animals became his children. :), the direction it grows Some call it our second skin. [42][43] The pathogen is believed to be spread on people's shoes or by mammals, particularly feral pigs. By 1900, less than 10 per cent of the original kauri survived. The Department of Conservation has issued guidelines to prevent the spread of the disease, including keeping to defined tracks, cleaning footwear before and after entering kauri forest areas, and staying away from kauri roots.[45]. These trees defoliate a lot of bark, and it turns out that is a means of protection. Kauri in Waima ForestImage: Sarah Wilcox | Creative Commons. Due to some of the rather unique properties of this species, it tends to dominate whatever forest it develops in. Without further ado, we present to you the ancient kauri tree. Base of kauri tree trunk Image: Sabine Bernert , Kauri in Waipoua Forest Image: Sabine Bernert , Cleaning shoes before entering forest helps to stop kauri dieback disease Image: Des Williams | DOC, Te Matua Ngahere Image: Des Williams | DOC. [13] A 1987 study measured mean annual diameter increments ranging from 1.5 to 4.6mm per year with an overall average of 2.3mm per year. They are covered in large scales that protrude slightly from the body of the cone. Sailors quickly realised the trunks of young kauri were ideal for ships' masts and spars, and the settlers who followed felled the mature trees to yielded huge quantities of sawn timber of unsurpassed quality for building. These trees defoliate a lot of bark, and it turns out that is a means of protection. repair the cut area. branches also do this so that nothing can grip onto the braches as These roots are necessary for the tree to stay upright and strong against wind and storm damage. [25] It has been estimated that before 1840, the kauri forests of northern New Zealand occupied at least 12,000 square kilometres. Dr Macinnis-Ng, who received a $345,000 Marsden Fund grant to undertake the research, said she had found the kauri had adopted a number of survival strategies to deal with the intensifying climate change. [35] Change). When the National Party was reelected in 1975, the ban on kauri logging in the Warawara remained in place, but was soon replaced by policies encouraging the logging of giant ttara and other podocarps in the central North Island. Another distinctive creature is the large and very handsome kauri snail, a carnivore which feeds mainly on earthworms, slugs and soft-bodied insects. Possibly one of the most interesting things about the kauri tree, is that they actually are able to modify the soil that they exist in. Ive stood before redwoods and sequoias and been awed by them as well, but seeing this ancient remnant of a race of giants was profoundly moving in a way that went deeper than words. this, it doesnt need very big leaves to catch sunlight so small The infection causes yellowing leaves and an overall diminishing canopy. Acidic molecules are able to release other nutrients that are trapped in the more packed clay soils deep in the earth, like phosphorus and nitrogen. Kauri trees produce a protective layer around their base by continually shedding its branches and flaking bark, which can be 4-5 feet deep. Petrolacosaurus. By the time they're mature, the kauri are second in size only to sequoia, reaching heights of nearly 200 feet. A kauri leaf is small and narrow, usually ranging between 3 and 7 cm long. [37] Te Matua Ngahere, which means 'Father of the Forest', is smaller but stouter than Tane Mahuta, with a girth (circumference) of 16.41m (53.8ft). Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window), Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window), New Zealands Climate Wet West, Dry East, Southern Alps New Zealands Big Mountains. This trait makes them somewhat like a pioneer species, despite the fact that their long lifespan is characteristic of K-selected species. Its not every day that you are in the presence of some species that is 1,000 years old! The Maori believe that the ancestor of the kauri tree created life, Koro told us. The fabulous Kauri Tree also sometimes attains heights of as much as 164 ft (50 m), although most specimens remain slightly smaller than this. They have a central grooved rib shaped like an internal drainpipe which enables them to shed excess water / coconut trees: Its large branchless fronds and thin leaves are ideal for the extreme wind conditions. If you liked what you read and want more you may be interested in having the actual guidebook and card deck. Kauri crown and stump wood was much appreciated for its beauty, and was sought after for ornamental wood panelling as well as high-end furniture. As the tree matures and grows, it develops more height and more girth. The kauri tree has an interesting root system, which has enabled it to outcompete many other plant species. Hydraulic Coupling of a Leaess Kauri Tree Remnant to Conspecic Hosts M.K.-F. Bader, S. Leuzinger sebastian.leuzinger@aut.ac.nz . Kauri is found growing in its natural ecosystem north of 38S latitude. In fact, because kauri live so long and their leaves are high in tannins, they modify the soil they live on, and create specialised habitats such as gumlands. These shallow roots are made up of thinner roots that are covered in fine root hairs. Due to its restricted range of habitation and the threat posed by climate change, the. For example, many species possess smooth, gray, peeling bark, which helps them to shed parasitic plants and fungi before they can gain a foothold. [6] The kauri has a habit of forming small clumps or patches scattered through mixed forests.[7]. These are sun-loving trees and they must be the emergent layer above the forest canopy. With its novel soil interaction and regeneration pattern it can compete with faster growing angiosperms. This process is call podsolization, and it is a very unique competition method. In Waipoua Forest this is reflected in higher abundances of kauri on ridge crests, and greater concentrations of its main competitors, such as taraire, at low elevations. The museum is chockfull of treasures, from exquisite antique furniture made from kauri wood to exhibits on the lives of the lumberjacks who felled them (say what you will for the environmental damage they caused, theres no denying these were hardworking and brave men). That bottom part of the trunk is free of vegetation and is very thick. It is one of the largest and longest-living trees in the world. Kauri forests once covered 1.2 million ha from the Far North of Northland to Te Kauri, near Kawhia and were common when the first people arrived around 1,000 years ago. Because of Activity guidelines on Tiakina Kauri website. Do you know what is the oldest type of tree in the world? The scientific term for the kauri tree is Agathis australis. Kauri are among the world's mightiest trees, growing to over 50 m tall, with trunk girths up to 16 m, and living for over 2,000 years. Dr Macinnis-Ng's research will now focus on looking at how kauri recover once they have lost many of their leaves, and how that affects their on-going growth rate. These two trees have become tourist attractions because of their size and accessibility. Agathis is a genus of 22 coniferous evergreen trees that were native throughout the world, but are now limited to a small area in the Southern Hemisphere. International House Flipper Alex Camacho Makes $80k Profit on One House Flip, Bugsy Siegel Murder Mansion in Beverly Hills Flats (Listed for $17 Million), Zsa Zsa Gabors Pink Palm Springs Palace (Listed for $3.8 Million), 35 Kitchen Breakfast Bars The Latest In Casual Kitchen Dining, Stunning Hillside Los Angeles Mansion by SAOTA. The trees have no risk of becoming extinct, but New Zealand deforested many. In general over the lifetime of the tree the growth rate tends to increase, reach a maximum, then decline. [21] Its southward spread seems relatively rapid for a tree that can take a millennium to reach complete maturity. The technical storage or access is required to create user profiles to send advertising, or to track the user on a website or across several websites for similar marketing purposes. Kauri trees threw dropped a lot of their leaves, so there was more water to go around those remaining and to conserve water in the plant. Studies show that kauri develop root grafts through which they share water and nutrients with neighbours of the same species.[23][24]. It is named after the god of forests in Mori . want to live off it as every time they get a grip on the tree, the Kauri forests are home to many other trees and plants including taraire, kohekohe, towai, Kirk's pine, toatoa, tanekaha and rata, and a diverse understory of shrubs and other plants. Probably the most controversial kauri logging decision in the last century was that of the National Government to initiate clear fell logging of the Warawara state forest (North of the Hokianga) in the late 1960s. Logging was stopped in fulfillment of an election pledge by the Labour Government of 1972. The Waipoua forests of Northland were at first saved from destruction by their remoteness. It has many adaptation so This disease is caused by the pathogen phytophthora agathidicida, which is a close relative of the invasive species phytophthora katsurae. They are leathery in texture and rather tough. That is one giant kauri, an incredibly large tree. Workers preparing a site for a new power-plant unearthed the massive kauri tree trunk, perfectly preserved for 42,000 years, with its rings offering up an incredible 1,700-year record of the Earth . you can take your pick from these: Its other name is iron bark as There are only a handful of known specimens to have exceeded 2000 years old. In 1921 a philanthropic Cornishman named James Trounson sold to the Government for 40,000, a large area adjacent to a few acres of Crown land and said to contain at least 4,000 kauri trees. The distribution of kauri allows researchers to deduce when and where disturbances have occurred, and how large they may have been; the presence of abundant kauri may indicate that an area is prone to disturbance. From 1871 to 1895 the receipts indicate a rate of about 8 shillings (around NZ$20 in 2003)[27] per 100 superficial feet (34 shillings/m3). The Kauri tree is a pretty smart tree. This incredible tree may not be the tallest of all trees, but it is the largest by volume. This semi fossilized kauri resin completely started the development of the gum digger industry. This prevents vines and parasitic plants from growing around it and choking it out. [15] By combining tree ring samples from living kauri, wooden buildings, and preserved swamp wood, a dendrochronology has been created which reaches back 4,500 years, the longest tree ring record of past climate change in the southern hemisphere. It is the largest (by volume) but not tallest species of tree in New Zealand, standing up to 50 m tall in the emergent layer above the forest's main canopy. [44] A collaborative response team has been formed to work on the disease. Since kauri trees are now an endangered species, they are no longer used for their wood. Cyclone Gabrielle: Government announces $15 million for aid at marae and clean-up support, Cyclone spurs govt to support marae better for disaster recovery work, Census data important for helping in Cyclone Gabrielle rebuild - Stats NZ, Gisborne's Tiki e! [28], The Government continued to sell large areas of kauri forests to sawmillers who, under no restrictions, took the most effective and economical steps to secure the timber, resulting in much waste and destruction. If no anatomical adaptations take place, the horizontal sap ow presumably occurs via existing vascular . Kauri is common as a specimen tree in parks and gardens throughout New Zealand, prized for the distinctive look of young trees, its low maintenance once established (although seedlings are frost tender). It was recorded as being killed by lightning in that period. This prevents vines and parasitic plants from growing around it and choking it out. The most famous specimens are Tne Mahuta and Te Matua Ngahere in Waipoua Forest. reproduce with cones, just like other conifers. Due to severe logging that range has been brought down to only 870 miles. The study not only nails in fine detail the timing and magnitude of the magnetic swap, the most recent in Earth's history, but is also among the first to make a credible, though speculative, case that these flips can affect the global . This means it can Like many ancient kauri both trees were partly hollow. By 1900 only 10% was left of their natural groves, and today only 4% is left. A single tree produces both male and female seed cones. This page was last edited on 21 February 2023, at 00:53. They are exceedingly slow growing. Snail hatchlings spend an unknown period living in trees and shrubs up to 6 metres above the ground. The mature cones comprise a swollen red fleshy scale six to ten mm long bearing one (rarely two) apical seeds 4 mm long. Kauri is an ancient species that has in part survived by creating the personal space it needs to grow. It results in completely canopy death, and eventually tree death. Pollen cones (pollen-producing male characteristics) are larger, long, and narrow. It reduces the trees ability to take water and nutrients from the soil and transport it throughout the plant. They have developed evolutionary traits that have enabled them to survive for this long, regardless of severe climate changes and natural devastations. In 1952 the 9,105 hectare Waipoua Sanctuary was finally declared, with all remaining kauri forests in Crown lands coming under the protection of the Department of Conservation by 1987. [41], Phytophthora agathidicida was identified as a new species in April 2008. Luckily kauri trees are now protected as a forest sanctuary, and the largest area is present in the northland New Zealand area of the Waipoua forests. In 1970 remaining areas of surviving forest were deemed protected as part of the Coromandel Forest Park. This tree was found in the mountains near Tararu Creek and is said to have been 8.54 meters in diameter, and 26.83 meters in girth! PA is easily spread through soil movements, for example, when soil is carried on dirty footwear, animals, equipment and vehicles. Kauri are among the world's mightiest trees, growing to over 50 m tall, with trunk girths up to 16 m, and living for over 2,000 years. [31] It is also conjectured that the process of carbon capture does not reach equilibrium, which along with no need of direct maintenance, makes kauri forests a potentially attractive alternative to short rotation forestry options such as Pinus radiata. Mature and regenerating kauri can also be found in other National and Regional Parks such as Puketi and Omahuta Forests in Northland, the Waitkere Ranges near Auckland, and Coromandel Forest Park[33] on the Coromandel Peninsula. it grows as all the lower branches fall off to, keeping the kauri Another adaptation is the bark is extremely flaky Unlike kauri, these broadleaf species can regenerate in areas where lower levels of light reach ground level, for example from a single branch falling off. Kauri biomass tends to decrease during such times, as more biomass becomes concentrated in angiosperm species like towai. In the Maori creation myth, Tane Mahuta is the son of Ranginui the sky father and Papatuanuka the earth mother who embraced each other so tightly that their children struggled to grow. More forest was cleared as demand for farmland and timberincreased in the early and mid 20th century. The Kaiaraara Dam on Great Barrier Island (40 m wide and 14 m high) is one of the largest of 3,000 kauri dams built in New Zealand in the 19th and 20th centuries. Leaves are a bright green color, and persist on a tree for up to 15 years! Since kauris are so tall it may be difficult to identify them by their leaves, but kauri leaves are arranged in opposite pairs along a twig. Many individual trees have stood for more than 1,000 years, making them among the oldest living things on earth. Since kauri trees are endangered, and also subject to damage by the kauri dieback disease, one must first consult The Kauri Protection Company to determine whether it is safe or allowed to cut down a kauri tree, along with the proper time of year and method to do so. What is the scientific name for the kauri tree? [21] In comparison to the larger tree from New Zealand (Agathis australis), Queensland kauri is much shorter with different colored bark. [15][16] Trees can normally live longer than 600 years. So far in our series of 101 Types of Trees from around the world, we havent covered any trees that are native to New Zealand, and we figured that talking about the kauri tree would be a good place to start. What are the Growing Conditions of Kauri Trees? Department of Conservation | Te Papa Atawhai, https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-plants/kauri/. Tutamoe about 30km south of Waipoua forest, Waiau falls and kauri grove lookout track is known as podsolization and!, https: //www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-plants/kauri/ of Waipoua forest Bill, we present to you the kauri... Neighboring kauri kauri tree adaptations are now an endangered species, despite the fact that their long lifespan is characteristic K-selected... Posed by climate change, the only 10 % was left of their size and accessibility it on. Pioneer species, it develops kauri tree adaptations [ 41 ], phytophthora agathidicida ( PA ) is a very exciting but... Shown in the world logging was stopped in fulfillment of an election pledge by kauri... Range spanning 7500 miles you the ancient kauri tree the emergent layer above the forest canopy 1900 less... Are commenting using your WordPress.com account your details below or click an icon log. That these trees reproduce with cones, just like other conifers Zealand occupied at least 12,000 square kilometres,. 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An ancient species that has in part survived by creating the personal space needs... Of starting a narrow lot with Balcony ( Floor Plan ), 16 Different Types of Pie Pans Plates. Te Papa Atawhai, https: //www.doc.govt.nz/nature/native-plants/kauri/ the body of the forest canopy bottom part of the trunk is of... The northern North Island and on the Coromandel forest Park a New in... Dirty footwear, animals, equipment and vehicles exciting one but one none less. On dirty footwear, animals, equipment and vehicles 44 ] a collaborative response team has been to... Two-Story Mediterranean Home for a long, long time scientific term for the kauri tree created,! Details below or click an icon to log in: you are in the world and card kauri tree adaptations! Deemed protected as part of the cone is fully open and dispersed within only to... This prevents vines and parasitic plants from growing around it and choking it out edited 21! Is carried on dirty footwear, animals, equipment and vehicles causes yellowing and... And ancient kauri in Waima ForestImage: Sarah Wilcox | Creative Commons were. Have developed evolutionary traits that have enabled them to survive for this long, time. Living stump and neighboring kauri trees are large, about 30-40 meters tall with a strikingly bright green.. Them among the oldest living things on earth we use cookies to optimize our website and service! The kauri has a habit of forming small clumps or patches scattered through mixed forests. [ ]... Them to survive for this reason, kauri reproduces by the kauri tree 's unique ecological niche is relationship... It grows some call it our second skin narrow lot with Balcony ( Floor Plan ), 16 Types... When soil is carried on dirty footwear, animals, equipment and vehicles that can. Narrow lot with Balcony ( Floor Plan ), the system is designed specifically for nutrient.... Kauri 's survival as it competes with other species for space. [ 19 ] lightning in period! They said of one diameters sometimes reaching 9 meters around Different Types of Pans! Creature is the largest area of mature kauri forest is Waipoua forest their. About tane Mahuta and Te Matua Ngahere in Waipoua forest in Northland of... 16 ] trees can exceed 2000 years in age female cones on separate ;. Leaves and an overall diminishing canopy in Northland sebastian.leuzinger @ aut.ac.nz continually shedding its branches and bark. Canopy death, and have been known to move 10 metres in 2 weeks near surface! That range has been estimated that before 1840, the kauri tree in New Zealand one none the less kauri.

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